features

Time-domain features.

Notation:
  • \(x_i\) : value of a signal at time index \(i\)

  • \(N\) : length of the signal

axopy.features.time.integrated_emg(x, axis=-1, keepdims=False)[source]

Sum over the rectified signal.

\[\text{IEMG} = \sum_{i=1}^{N} | x_{i} |\]
Parameters:
  • x (ndarray) – Input data. Use the axis argument to specify the “time axis”.

  • axis (int, optional) – The axis to compute the feature along. By default, it is computed along rows, so the input is assumed to be shape (n_channels, n_samples).

  • keepdims (bool, optional) – Whether or not to keep the dimensionality of the input. That is, if the input is 2D, the output will be 2D even if a dimension collapses to size 1.

Returns:

y – IEMG of each channel.

Return type:

ndarray, shape (n_channels,)

axopy.features.time.logvar(x, axis=-1, keepdims=False)[source]

Log of the variance of the signal.

\[\text{log-var} = \log \left( \frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^{N} \left(x_i - \mu \right)^2 \right)\]

For electrophysiological signals that are mean-zero, this is the log of the mean square value, making it similar to root_mean_square() but scaling differently (slower) with \(x\).

For EMG data recorded from forearm muscles, log-var has been found to relate to wrist angle fairly linearly [1]_.

Note: base-10 logarithm is used, though the base is not specified in [1]_.

Parameters:
  • x (ndarray) – Input data. Use the axis argument to specify the “time axis”.

  • axis (int, optional) – The axis to compute the feature along. By default, it is computed along rows, so the input is assumed to be shape (n_channels, n_samples).

  • keepdims (bool, optional) – Whether or not to keep the dimensionality of the input. That is, if the input is 2D, the output will be 2D even if a dimension collapses to size 1.

Returns:

y – log-var of each channel.

Return type:

ndarray, shape (n_channels,)

References

axopy.features.time.mean_absolute_value(x, weights='mav', axis=-1, keepdims=False)[source]

Computes the mean absolute value (MAV) of each signal.

Mean absolute value is a popular feature for obtaining amplitude information from EMG, especially in gesture classification contexts [1]_.

There is an optional windowing function applied to the rectified signal, described as MAV1 and MAV2 in some references. A custom window can also be used. The general definition is given as:

\[\text{MAV} = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^{N} w_i |x_i|\]

Normal MAV does not use a windowing function, equivalent to setting all \(w_i = 1\).

MAV1 refers to a rectangular window which de-emphasizes the beginning and ending of an input window. The first quarter of the input samples receive a weight of 0.5, the middle half of the input samples receive a weight of 1, and the final quarter recieves a weight of 0.5:

\[\begin{split}w_i = \begin{cases} 1, & \frac{N}{4} \leq i \leq \frac{3N}{4} \\ 0.5, & \text{otherwise} \end{cases}\end{split}\]

MAV2 uses a similar window structure to MAV1 (i.e. broken into first quarter, middle half, and final quarter), but the window is trapezoidal in shape, ramping from 0 to 1 over the first quarter and from 1 to 0 over the last quarter:

\[\begin{split}w_i = \begin{cases} 1, & \frac{N}{4} \leq i \leq \frac{3N}{4} \\ \frac{4i}{N}, & i < \frac{N}{4} \\ \frac{4(i - N)}{N}, & i > \frac{3N}{4} \end{cases}\end{split}\]
Parameters:
  • x (ndarray) – Input data. Use the axis argument to specify the “time axis”.

  • weights (str or ndarray, optional) –

    Weights to use. Possible values:

    • ’mav’ : all samples in the signal are weighted equally (default).

    • ’mav1’ : rectangular window with the middle half of the signal receiving unit weight and the first and last quarters of the signal receiving half weight.

    • ’mav2’ : similar to ‘mav1’, but weights on the first and last quarters increase and decrease between 0 and 1 respectively, forming a trapezoidal window.

    • [ndarray] : user-supplied weights to apply. Must be a 1D array with the same length as the signals received in the compute method.

  • axis (int, optional) – The axis to compute the feature along. By default, it is computed along rows, so the input is assumed to be shape (n_channels, n_samples).

  • keepdims (bool, optional) – Whether or not to keep the dimensionality of the input. That is, if the input is 2D, the output will be 2D even if a dimension collapses to size 1.

Returns:

y – MAV of each channel.

Return type:

ndarray, shape (n_channels,)

See also

axopy.features.util.inverted_t_window

Generates the window for MAV1

axopy.features.util.trapezoidal_window

Generates the window for MAV2

References

axopy.features.time.root_mean_square(x, axis=-1, keepdims=False)[source]

Computes the root mean square of each signal.

RMS is a commonly used feature for extracting amplitude information from physiological signals.

\[\text{RMS} = \sqrt{\frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^N x_i^2}\]
Parameters:
  • x (ndarray) – Input data. Use the axis argument to specify the “time axis”.

  • axis (int, optional) – The axis to compute the feature along. By default, it is computed along rows, so the input is assumed to be shape (n_channels, n_samples).

  • keepdims (bool, optional) – Whether or not to keep the dimensionality of the input. That is, if the input is 2D, the output will be 2D even if a dimension collapses to size 1.

Returns:

y – RMS of each channel.

Return type:

ndarray, shape (n_channels,)

axopy.features.time.slope_sign_changes(x, threshold=0, axis=-1, keepdims=False)[source]

Computes the number of slope sign changes (SSC) of each signal.

A slope sign change occurs when the middle value of a group of three adjacent values in the signal is either greater than or less than both of the other two.

Parameters:
  • x (ndarray) – Input data. Use the axis argument to specify the “time axis”.

  • threshold (float, optional) – A threshold for discriminating true slope sign changes from those caused by low-level noise fluctuating about a specific value. By default, no threshold is used, so every slope sign change in the signal is counted.

  • axis (int, optional) – The axis to compute the feature along. By default, it is computed along rows, so the input is assumed to be shape (n_channels, n_samples).

  • keepdims (bool, optional) – Whether or not to keep the dimensionality of the input. That is, if the input is 2D, the output will be 2D even if a dimension collapses to size 1.

Returns:

y – SSC of each channel.

Return type:

ndarray, shape (n_channels,)

References

axopy.features.time.waveform_length(x, axis=-1, keepdims=False)[source]

Computes the waveform length (WL) of each signal.

Waveform length is the sum of the absolute value of the deltas between adjacent values (in time) of the signal:

\[\text{WL} = \sum_{i=1}^{N-1} | x_{i+1} - x_i |\]
Parameters:
  • x (ndarray) – Input data. Use the axis argument to specify the “time axis”.

  • axis (int, optional) – The axis to compute the feature along. By default, it is computed along rows, so the input is assumed to be shape (n_channels, n_samples).

  • keepdims (bool, optional) – Whether or not to keep the dimensionality of the input. That is, if the input is 2D, the output will be 2D even if a dimension collapses to size 1.

Returns:

y – WL of each channel.

Return type:

ndarray, shape (n_channels,)

References

axopy.features.time.zero_crossings(x, threshold=0, axis=-1, keepdims=False)[source]

Computes the number of zero crossings (ZC) of each signal.

A zero crossing occurs when two adjacent values (in time) of the signal have opposite sign. A threshold is used to mitigate the effect of noise around zero. It is used as a measure of frequency information.

Parameters:
  • x (ndarray) – Input data. Use the axis argument to specify the “time axis”.

  • threshold (float, optional) – A threshold for discriminating true zero crossings from those caused by low-level noise situated about zero. By default, no threshold is used, so every sign change in the signal is counted.

  • axis (int, optional) – The axis to compute the feature along. By default, it is computed along rows, so the input is assumed to be shape (n_channels, n_samples).

  • keepdims (bool, optional) – Whether or not to keep the dimensionality of the input. That is, if the input is 2D, the output will be 2D even if a dimension collapses to size 1.

Returns:

y – ZC of each channel.

Return type:

ndarray, shape (n_channels,)

References